A Brief History of Rome

From the Tarquinian Kings to a Murder on the Senate Floor:

In a nutshell, the Roman civilization lasted from around 753 BC to 476 AD, encompassing the founding of Rome by the mythical twins, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire… let me take you through this not-so-a brief History of Rome, the greatest civilization that ever existed!

The political and geographical unit known as Rome was inarguably the longest-living ‘nation’ to have ever existed in Western Civilization. Rome, beginning from the kings of Tarquin in 753 B.C., to the fall of Western Rome under barbarian invaders 1400 years later, underwent monumental changes as the challenges of keeping a civilization together – and managing the personal interests of the powerful – forced revolutions. It was these revolutions that saw Rome ran the gamut of monarchy, republic, Empire, and all the in-betweens of chaos.

Thus, the history of Rome is replete with instances of change, rebellion, transformation, overthrow, accommodation, and surrender. Kings, senators, tribunes, and dictators were thrown off rocks, murdered, strangled, or poisoned to death. The Romans saw conquest, victory, defeat, invasions and occupations in turn. People went mad – both rulers and the commoners. Sometimes, the land itself went mad, with an earthquake or a volcano tossing up every madman’s plans in exchange for a madder.

And, as is with every great nation and people, legends, myths, stories, and superstitions are abound when exploring Rome’s history. Even now, we are split on exactly how the greatest civilization was founded. Was it because twins, abandoned to the wild, found solace under the teats of a grieving she-wolf? Or did great Troy’s fall result in expatriates – fleeing disaster and loss in ancient Mycenea – find a new home in Italia? Perhaps a simpler tale lies beyond the mists or myth, and that Several Tribes, living on Seven Hills, came together, created a faction, cooked up a couple of legends, and solidified their place in human history?

Join me for a quick run through Rome’s history from its founding to the first Emperor.

The Founding: Four Legends

Anyone familiar with the history of Christianity should know that even the Birth of Christ is a contested topic. Much of the Bible we know and love was a product of centuries on, created and finessed to result in the story of Christ.

The same goes for Rome. We may never really know just how Rome was found. In truth, even the myths surrounding Rome’s beginning were created centuries after Rome came to know itself as Rome.

There about the first century A.D., Rome had grown too big for its breaches.

Her tentacles had spread out across Western and Eastern Europe. Her temples and civic offices were in Northern Africa; all the way from Mauretania on the Atlantic Coast, to Egypt by the Red Sea. Her ships plied ports from Northern Ireland to the exotic lands of India.

All this meant was that Rome was a hodgepodge of peoples. You think crossing a borderline and using lingua English is good right now? Imagine how it was way back, when TicTocs and Twitter were no where to be found.

The upstarts from a single town called Rome had it easy at the beginning. The Italian Peninsula shared a similar language in Latin. But as Rome grew beyond the Alps, across the Mediterranean, and into Gaul, Germania, Britannia, Africa, Egypt, Asia, and the rest of the Galaxy, language ceased being the only problem.

Sure, you can trade and exchange goods with a total stranger with nary a single word understood between you. A commander can order foreign troops with gestures and pointing fingers. Heck, members of Parliament can exchange fists to communicate their disposition over a bill on sewage treatment.

You can’t be so cavalier when it comes to the hearts of people.

As Rome grew, it became increasingly important that the people be of one mind. Her rulers, from the Tarquins to the Emperors, saw that keeping the mighty power in check required people believed in a powerful beginning. And so, a fairy tale was created.

Simply put; the Romans in the imperial period of Roman history turned to religion, and religious myths, to create a past anyone could get onboard with. This past would be one where Roman history was a thing ordained by the gods.

A Trojan Tale: Piety

The first origin story corresponded to a period when Rome was seeing immense political instability. By 19 BC, Rome had undergone a succession of civil wars, rebellions, insurrections, piracy, banditry, warlordism, and general mayhem. The people did not feel bonded to anyone else beyond the confines of their own cities. So as Rome grew, those that loved Rome and her achievements decided to do something about this divisiveness. One of these, was Virgil.

Virgil was a poet, most known for The Aeneid. The Aeneid was a poem that fused Rome’s beginnings to that of ancient Greece where most of Rome’s own culture could be said to have been borrowed. Homer had constructed the Odyssey and the Iliad, two epic Greek poems that told its audience a great deal about Greek culture, religion, tradition, and belief. In a way, these Greek poems were about forging a Greek identity that could be shared by the many tribes and peoples of Greece. These bonds were so strong that when the Persians under Xerxes tried to invade the Greeks while the Greeks were technically unfriendly with each other, they were met with a supersized boot in the chest with the caption, “THIS, IS, SPARTA!”

Virgil leapt on to this bandwagon. He too tough of a Roman people bound similarly. Ht rote of Aeneas, a Trojan Prince, who was one of the lucky few royals to escape the destruction of Troy.

Aeneas met with many trials and challenges as he and his people fled from one coast to another in search of a home. Every time the Trojans thought they had found a new home, Aeneas refused, saying that the destined lands the Gods had given him and his people were just beyond. He hooked up with a Carthaginian Queen, Dido, and despite all her offerings of love and support, Aeneas refused.

The Gods had promised Aeneas and his people a home of their own. They could not be absorbed into another land despite their desires for rest and respite. No sweetness offered – even if truly genuine as was Dido’s love for Aeneas – would be enough. The Gods had given the order. The Trojans, with their history of failure way back in Troy, knew not to disappoint the Gods.

Finally, Aeneas and his so landed in Italy, settling in the defensible hills of the Albans. They were a strong group but, united in their sense of manifest destiny, overcame the trials of settling in a settled land. Over time, Aeneas’ line sired Numitor, who was father to a girl by the name of Rhea. And it would be from her womb that Rome’s twin sons would be born.

Lessons

Piety.

Virgil believed it was important that a people obey and observe order. The first moral code that Romans would create would thus be a religious moral code of obedience to a sense of destiny. In the Aeneid, every time Aeneas and his people were tempted, Aeneas would think back to his history. He would realize that whatever man’s plans were, the Gods had greater and better plans.

Thus, the moral of the story was that piety – obedience to the gods both in heart and action – would result in great outcomes. Wasn’t Rome in 19 BC the greatest ‘empire’ the Mediterranean world had ever known? Virgil tied this greatness to the moral code that was being taught in the Aeneid. The people loved it, and thus a myth was created.

Twin Sons of the Wolf: Duty to Country

Remember where the first myth ended? Numitor gave birth to a Rhea?

As the story goes, Numitor was betrayed by his brother Amulius. Amulius forced Rhea to become a Vestal Virgin dedicated to the Gods, and from then onwards, it would be Amulius’ line that would take over the people of Rome’s destiny.

Perfect, right?

No. Remember, it is the plan of the Gods that is most perfect. Any deviations that are not destined are insufficient.

As the story goes, the Gods looked on as Numitor – the true successor of Aeneas – was betrayed by his own brother Amulius. They smirked. This worm thought he knew better. Sigh, the mortals are embarrassing. Lets show them who’s boss, neh?

Rhea, dedicated to the Temple of Vesta and intended to remain a virgin all her life, would end the line of Numitor. Instead, she became pregnant with twins.

To add salt into the wound and womb, the father would be Mars, God of War, himself. Since the line of Aeneas proved very virtuous and pious, the Gods would keep the line.

But they would add some steel into it; now, their descendants would be divine. And not just divine; martially divine.

You see, Aeneas was born of Venus, the Roman Goddess of love.It was perhaps because of this that Amulius was insufficiently ruthless. He allowed his brother – adequately blinded to keep him from taking back the throne – to live, and restrained from chopping down all of Numitor’s line.

Enter Mars; the Roman God of War.

Mars, unlike Areas, the Greek God of War, was also a tactician. Mars was cold and rational. Areas was prone to non-sensical and capricious behavior. The Romans didn’t want this human-like and practical Greek God in charge of their violent tendencies. They were merchants and capitalists at heart, for Gods’ sakes! How could anyone make a deal only to see it go up in smokes because one was caught in a grip of passion? Those Greek plays, dramas, comedies and tragedies with all their upsets and surprises were well enough good for watching. Bad for business.

So? Mars, yes. Ares, no.

As the story proceeded, Amulius placed the twins in a basket and let them drift off in the Tiber. He should have killed the twins there and then but he was born from the line of the Goddess of Love…poor guy was compromised by his own divine blood from the beginning. He really had no chance.

A she-wolf by the name of Lupa found the kids. Nursed them until a shepherd found the twins. [Parallels to the story of Oedipus? Anyone?]

The twins grew into strong young lads. Romulus and Remus each gathered a following, each large enough to warrant the building of a city. Romulus looked towards the Palatine Hills. Remus favored the Aventine Hills. Anyone familiar with the TV show Rome should have an inkling of where this story goes just by the name of these hills.

There was a slight problem to this brotherly tale of love and growth. You see, there was a rule called primogeniture which every second to tenth-borne in the world today is happy never works. The ancient people, unlike today’s cultures, believed in strength. They believed a man’s possessions all went to his first born son and the first born alone would take it all. This was all well and good when you knew who came out of the womb first. Indeed, even in the case of twins you know who came out first.

But no one knew for sure whether it was Romulus and Remus. The circumstances surrounding their birth by Rhea were uncertain. The Gods were characteristically mum. When the auguries and fortune tellers were consulted, the Gods remained silent. Remus claimed to have seen sacred birds fly over him. Romulus claimed the same. The brotherly pair were at an impasse; neither was willing to give in and both were willing to turn to violence to decide the issue.

Remember; the blood of Venus, yes, but the blood of Mars was fresher.

Romulus killed Remus and was declared king. Fratricide? The Gods demanded the issue be settled. Remus initiated the conflict…attacked first…stole my toys…you know how the story goes; I won, I write the history books.

Lessons

You see, back during the Civil War between Octavian and Mark Anthony – I say back then because this story was created in 19 BC – Rome saw a fight between brothers. Anthony and Octavian were bonded through Julius Caesar, the first man to truly unite all Romans. In a sense, Julius Caesar was Aeneas, and Anthony and Octavian were Amulius and Numitor.

But how were the people to know which of the two was the true one ordained and sanctioned by the Gods?

Another lesson was that duty to one’s country was paramount. The two brothers, Romulus and Remus, had to fight it out. Sense of brotherly love was well and good, but never when it threatened the plans ordained by the Gods.

Remember; Piety comes first, all else come later and in their ordained order.

Thus, just as Romulus and Remus fought for the leadership of Rome, just so did Octavian and Anthony have to fight for control. It was not that the two were power-hungry cynics willing to see the country burn so long as what remained was theirs.

No.

It was all about duty to country. It was their duty to find which of the two between them was ordained. The fighting was all incidental. Now that it was over, people should get over their losses and return back to the business of living under the rule of Octavian.

The Rape of the Sabines: Conquest is Divine

Manifest destiny was in effect. Romulus was king, and now the people could get over their losses and back to the business of living. Under Romulus of course.

There was a problem though; The Roman people under Romulus were a people of divine origins and birth. Normally, when Latin people conquered other people, some of the conquered people were offered a place in the leadership of the conquerors. It was how one small hill community could grow; by absorbing others, they could make up for their losses and become stronger in time for the next conquest.

Romulus could not do this. Simply adding others to the kingdom was not enough.

His blood was divine.

The blood of his people was also divine.

The plan that was developed was to shop around for wives that his people could marry. And if I am to marry, I wanted the best for myself.

Unfortunately for the Sabines, their women were the prettiest.

One day, the Rome threw a party and invited all their neighbors. When everyone got drunk – except Romulus and his gang – Romulus and his people attacked the drunk Sabines men and killed them off – except for all the other neighbors. In the morning, the hangovers the others suffered were enough to keep them from making too much noise. Romulus and his men had new wives, and the ink on the “marriage” contracts was dry

Lesson

If there was anything the Roman Republic and later Empire was known for it was their love for conquest. They would come into a place, beat the armies into submission, then come in. instead of simply taking over and extracting the wealth of the conquered people, the Romans would now move on to conquering the hearts and minds. They would build Roman temples and destroy the gods of the people they defeated. They would reward those that embraced Roman culture, and enslave those too stupid to bend the knee.

The lesson of the Rape of the Sabines in Roman myth is sordid as a tale, yet as pragmatic and practical as the people who rejected the Greek god Ares in favor of Mars. The act of murdering the Sabines men was ugly. Especially the fact that they murdered the men just so they could take over their women.

That said, firstly, the Romans are divine as a people. It is their manifest destiny for conquer and if you ain’t happy, go tell it to the Gods.

On a more serious note, this myth tells us about the Roman mindset and their exquisite understanding of the human heart. They knew that their own people might not be happy about the act of killing off people who never declared themselves enemies. The Sabines actually came to drink and be happy only to be betrayed.

This tale of Rome’s founding is about instilling a moral norm within the Roman people. Firstly, it was okay to act unscrupulously in service to one’s nation. The infrastructure projects, building schools, hospitals and community halls that came in later were what would salve the bitterness of attacking an unwary enemy.

Remember; piety to the Gods meant the Romans had to obey the will of the Gods and their destiny. Duty to one’s nation meant doing everything in the interest of one’s people and if this meant killing your brother – to say nothing of one’s unwary friends – so much the better. The tale of the Rape of the Sabines is one of conquest and mineral exploitation and finding a way to live with yourself.

The Seven Hills: Tradition

The tales surrounding the Seven Hills is mixed and largely lost in translation. There were Seven Hills, corresponding to the Seven major tribes that made up Rome. Or there were Seven Tribes, coming together on the Palantine Hills for defense. Or Romulus had seven sons, each forming one of the seven most respected patrician families?

Romulus supposedly died and was followed by 6 descendants. These descendants made up much of the culture and codes that were carried down into the Empire period and beyond.

The last of these kings was called Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (535 BC – 509 BC). Unlike his forebears, Tarqiunius was abusive, using his power most vilely. His son went about defiling Roman women and the straw that broke the camel’s back was the rape of a noble woman by the name of Lucretia.

The people were incensed. But this was okay, it was usual for the nobles to behave badly.

The nobles were incensed. This was not okay because it was unusual for nobles to be treated so badly.

Civil War broke out and Tarquinius, after several attempts to keep his power, was overcome and thrown from a rock.

Lessons

Now that the earlier tales established moral codes, a traditional norm was important. You see, before the Empire, the Republic existed. An aristocracy is an institution that believes in the political practice of a few ruling the many. A republic, on the other hand, is where the people elect representatives to govern their interests.

Rome, as a republic on the way towards becoming an Empire, had a problem; the Senators and tribunes of the Roman Senate were not really representing the Roman people. They looked more towards their interests.

So, the tale of Tarquin thrown off the rocks is a cautionary tale and an instruction. When the rulers fail to live up to expectation, it was for the people to rise up and overthrown them.

Now, mind you, you can’t just rise up in revolt willy-nilly. There has to be a cause. The Tarquin family was overthrown because they were too capricious. The Triumvirates rose to power because the Senate ceased looking out for the people. The people were most valued…just don’t go around uprising at every instance!

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The line of Aeneas, Numitor, and Romulus was over. The last king was exiled and Rome no longer had a monarch to dictate everything.

However, her institutions remained in place. Rather, the forms of the institutions we know today as representative of the Romans remained in some form or another.

When in 509 BC Tarquin was overthrown, Rome found herself without a single ruler in an area of the world where the only form of government people recognized had a single ruler at the top. Dictators, monarchs, emperors, and kings were the norm of the day. And when Lucius Junius Brutus and his clique took down the king, they made a solemn vow never to let one man rule all.

So it was that several innovations were designed. They would have kings that could not inherit thrones. Rulers who could and would be replaced with ease. Officers of government would be elected by the people and given supreme power…but only up to a point.

It was from 509 BC that new and strange – from the perspective of the rest of the Mediterranean world – titles would spring up.

A consul – formerly known as a praetor or ‘leader’ would take up the role of king. He would lead for a time; first one year, but over time it went up to about 2 years by the time the Republic died, and would be replaced by another. These consuls would be like kings in some way. They could not be taken to trial for some decisions they made while in power. To make sure power never got into his head – the consul – the Romans would have two consuls at the same time.

You see, the Romans understood the human heart in many more ways than one would think. They knew that a king who could be replaced the next year would fear for their lives post-consulship. So they made them aloof from legal consequences. At the same time, they made sure a co-consul would be around to keep the other on their toes.

This was the beginning of a new experiment in government and leadership. The Roman society would give supreme power to one guy, but make sure they didn’t get carried away. They would have a king that was not a king. In effect, they could have their cake and not eat it.

S.P.Q.R. – A brief history of Rome

You may have seen these initials on the flag of many a Roman army in epic movies. Ever wondered what they meant?

They stand for “Senate and the People of Rome”

The initials tell you something, maybe a lot, about how the Roman Republic was organized. Off hand, it says that there was some kind of class division or separation among the Romans. Elsewise, why would they specifically and deliberately state ‘Senate’ and ‘People’ in such a way?

The Senate

 The Senate was the main ruling body of the Roman people. It usually comprised of some 300 of the wealthiest and most respected men of Rome, picked from the gentes or some 50 powerful families that controlled the magistrates, the priesthoods, and the armies. It would rise at times, or see a dip below numbers. For most of the Republic’s early history, it was really the only ruling body of mention.

Most of the Senate was formed from the former close relatives of the line of Romulus/Tarquinius. They held immense prestige and honor. And wealth too. It was a closed body of aristocrats who shared power amongst themselves, jealously guarded against interlopers, and were the first to take down any amongst themselves who grew too big for comfort.

With time, and revolutions, the Senate’s body was increased. For one, wars and conflicts – to say nothing of poor seed, low child birth rates, and pure murder – demanded the Senate body be increased.

For another, sometimes a powerful plebeian – a commoner – would rise so high a simple murder or conspiracy could not take them down without raising the ire of the people. So there was a mechanism; if someone, say a merchant or something, became rich enough, the censor in the Senate was allowed to raise them to the Senate.

The Senate’s power lay in their dealing with foreign matters. In modern terms, they were the executive in many ways. Like the Presidency of the US, the Senate dealt with matters outside of Rome’s borders.

At the same time, though, the Senate could interfere with domestic matters. Internal affairs was the preserve of the magistrates. These were men granted serious power over the management of Rome’s domestic affairs. These powers ranged from military command to making decisions in both criminal and civil cases. They could order the building of offices or roads, and order the army to step in to preserve order. To some extent, magistrates could even order the death of a Roman citizen when necessary. Ordinarily, each Roman citizen was protected from such arbitrary rulings where due process [provocatio] was thrown out the window. Most importantly, the consuls were Rome’s highest magistrates and would serve a period of one year.

However, remember what we said about Romans being wise?

For one, while magistrates ruled supreme, their power was also checked in several ways. For one, Consuls served just one year. Secondly, the other magistrates only served one year, and had to wait ten years before taking the office again. Thirdly, the People had a Tribune, a man empowered to dismiss a magistrate’s – even a Consul’s or the Senate’s – ruling. In this way, the People would never grow too disaffected with the Senate’s operations on their lives and peace would be maintained for as long as possible.

Of course, the human heart is too finicky. The magistrates usually followed Senatorial decrees called senatus consulta. More importantly, the earliest magistrates, Consuls, and tribunes, could only come from the patrician or noblest families.

Over time and revolutions, the plebeians revolted and demanded greater voice and representation in the Senate or management of the Romans. They got to put in place magistrates of their own, praetors, tribunes, and even consuls. There were even dictators, a form of magistrate with supreme power over all Roman affairs, that were from plebeian stock.

To counter the potential of plebeian consuls or tribunes getting out of hand, the Senate devised a devastating convention. They could pass a bill, the senatus consultum ultimatum, that would empower a magistrate of their choice to take over the leadership of the State. This bill allowed them to dismiss even the order of a tribune, supposedly a man empowered to dismiss or veto any Senate ruling. The Senate would thus use this bill to eliminate anyone they deemed to powerful to legally take down.

Victims of this ruling included notable persons such as Julius Caesar, Gaius Gracchus, Sulla, and Mark Anthony. They had grown too powerful, with most of the People under them. So steps would be taken to remove them by fair means or foul. Caesar would escape, using his power over the army to defeat the Senate. Gracchus, trying to enact laws that would grant greater rights over the People, would not be so lucky.

Wars and Developments

It was not enough for the Romans to take down the Sabines. Very quickly, Rome went to war with her neighbors. These wars would fuel the Roman military machine in a way most ancient societies could not imagine. Most ancient kingdoms would rely on their own people and their own cultures to expand. They would suffer the loss of manpower and lie down, waiting for a population spike to feed their growth.

The Romans did things differently.

First, conquered territories would become colonies where retiring soldiers and lucky citizens would be settled. They in turn would feed Rome’s hunger for additional conquest by expanding those regions into agricultural and productive lands.

Another way was to incorporate defeated people into Rome. They would be granted Roman citizenship and access to Roman law and protection. This happened especially with the Samnites, the Etruscans, and the Latins of the Italian Peninsula.

Rome would thus grow well beyond her borders and numbers. In fact, Rome was almost constantly at war. These wars would overlap; just as the Etruscan War with Rome was ending in 264 BC, Rome was at war with the Carthagians. Before that, Rome had just concluded war with the Sabines in 290 BC even as she was at war with the Greek cities of Lucania. The Latins were defeated and joined Rome by 338 BC. The Samnites were done by 290 BC. The long Pyrrhic Wars were done by 272 BC, and the Punic Wars against Carthage by 218 BC.

Rome saw many defeats and victories; some of the victories were so conclusive they resulted in the disappearance of entire cultures. When Rome defeated Carthage, they poured salt into Carthagian farms to make sure nothing ever grew in future. When Pyrrhus or Epirus, Celts, Gauls, and Hannibal plagued Italia, hundreds of thousands of Roman legionnaires died in places such as the Battle of Trasimene, Battle of Arretium, the Battle of Ausculum, and many others.

These long and unending wars would see the Romans build a professional army and military institution that evolved over time and place. The equipment would change with each enemy Rome faced, and new equipment like trousers and horse stirrup would be introduced. From the Gauls the Romans inherited chain-linked armor. The Parthians and Sassanians taught Rome how to fight on horse. From the Huns, the Romans adopted trousers and stirrups in cavalry units. The Carthaginians taught Romans to build the greatest navies.

These wars would teach Rome a lot about the business of warfare. The Roman armies would usually host many foreign troops hired to take the brunt of enemy fighting while Rome preserved her numbers. These tactics and strategies would serve Rome for a long time, making her wiser than her neighbors and strong enough Rome could dictate who would be king in places as far as Africa and Asia.

However, these wars and the growing wisdom would mean little when it came to domestic affairs. Few of her foreign wars would have as much impact as her domestic disturbances.

Slaves: The Servile Wars

Spartacus was not the first slave to revolt. He was not even the second.

The Republic would go on to see three Slave revolts large enough to deserve a place in history.

The First Servile War, led by Eunus in Sicily, lasted from 135 – 132 BC. Eunus’ gimmick was to pretend he was a prophet and he used this position to lead thousands of Sicilian slaves in revolt against Rome. The revolt was initially successful, and it wasn’t until Roman ;egins under Publius Rupilius took them down. The reprisals were brutal; Eunus was captured, luckily dying in captivity before torturers got to him. His chief commander was also lucky, dying in the fighting.

Their followers? Not so lucky! Some 20 000 slaves were crucified, their bodies left to hand along Roman highways and gates as a reminder to any slave passing along of the consequences of dreaming of freedom.

What prompted the revolt in the first place?

Remember Rome’s wars of conquest? Rome had just taken over Sicily from the Carthaginians since 215 BC. Colonists and the rich coming over from the Italian Peninsula took over the farms, plantations, and slaves from their former owners.

These new owners, for some reason, felt they had to oppress their new slaves following a war that ended close to a century ago. The slaves received little food or clothing. Lower class civilians in Sicily faced man-hunts by Roman aristocrats and officials, enslaving them when formerly they were free. Pirates and slave dealers brought over new and cheap slaves from Rome’s conflicts in Macedonia, Greece, and everywhere else they were fighting. With fresh batches coming in every time, slaves would be replaced with vicious frequency as their owners did not value continuity.

The Second Servile War (104-100 BC) was led by two slaves called Athenion and Typhon. Again, it broke out in Sicily and again, the reason was an infusion of discontent.

This time, the consul Gaius Marius was looking for conscripts to fight in Gaul against the Cimbri and Teutones. The war was going badly enough that Marius and the Senate were desperate for soldiers. However, calls for recruits were not forthcoming; wherever the Senate asked, they were told the people were enslaved and no free hands were available to take up arms.

So the Senate ordered that certain slaves captured from Rome’s allies be immediately freed. Good, neh?

Bad move.

First, the slaves that were not freed felt it was unfair that their bunk-mates were going away. Misery loves company.

Second, the plantation owners felt their property was being taken away and were even more unhappy. Misers love their wealth even when it hurts them.

In Sicily, the praetor – title of governor – made the mistake of reversing the Senate’s decision. Remember, Praetors were a form of magistrate and they possessed immense power over laws in their regions.

The result? The Slaves rose in glorious revolt. They appointed Salvius, then later Athenion, as king, and valiantly resisted the Roman armies sent against them. The slaves were then taken down in a fight not notable enough to occupy historian writing.

1000 slaves were taken to fight against animals in gladiatorial shows in the arena. They refused; when armed, they turned to each other, killing themselves rather than entertain the Roman spectators, with the last suiciding. They should make a movie about this forlorn stand.

The Third Servile War from 73 BC to 71 BC is the most famous of the slave revolts. Since everyone has watched Spartacus, I will hold off from making this entry because I do not want to be charged with plagiarism and boring my audience.

The Social Troubles

The end war nigh; the Roman Republican system, strong while it lasted, was too bloated. Rome’s unending wars abroad had resulted in several generals and consuls with immense power growing too powerful for the Senate to contain. You know of Julius Caesar, but did you know there was a Sulla, and a Marius before him?

The Roman Republic’s ‘civil rights movement’ was a period of social unrest whereby the Roman People, the plebeians, called for greater rights and representation. These calls were long and ancient.

The first struggle begun from about 500 BC to about 287 BC. The Senate and aristocracy was challenged over their control over all affairs in Rome. Slowly, plebeians found their way into the Senate and other high posts, but it was never easy, and the patricians never made it easy.

There was a catch though; remember Rome’s incessant wars with her neighbors and threats of WMDs under Saddam’s bunkers?

The Republic and the Senate needed Roman citizens in their armies. They would conquer territories and feed off the wealth in those regions. But what happened if the Roman legionnaires refused the call to arms?

In 494 BC, when the Republic was at war with the Aequi, the Sabine, and the Volsci, the plebeians in the army refused to fight. When everyone put down their tools, the Senate realized concessions would have to be made or they would lose the war. So, in the same year, the Plebeian Council and the Plebeian Tribune were instituted.

In the same century, similar tactics were used to demand more power to the People. Land reforms were instituted where conquered lands no longer went to the aristocrats or patricians alone.448 BC, the office of the People’s Tribune was freed of the influence of the patricians via the law lex trebonica, and in 445 BC, the Plebians could now appoint plebeians to high military office – so long as Senatorial veto was never used.

Between 367 BC and 287 BC, other offices such as aediles, praetorships, dictator, censor, and other high offices were granted the Plebeians. They were obtained through the sacrifices like the Gracchi, Marius, and Julius Caesar. Again, the tactics were to use social pressures such as joblessness to gain power among the People. The Gracchi and Julius Caesar used the fact that there were too many slaves in Rome who took away jobs from freedmen and civilians, to press for constitutional reforms and changes.

The End of the Republic

For the most part, these initiatives were successful, though not without cost. Both Gracchi brothers lost their lives in the bid as did Julius Caesar. Marius and Sulla escaped assassination or senatus consultum ultimatum because the Republic was in serious war against her neighbors at the time. Marius faced the Numidians in 111-104 BC, then the Cimbri and the Teutones who followed the Gauls in 113-101 BC. Sulla’s fights against Mithridates were equally serious since the king of Mithridates was an actual ruler in his own rights, and wealthy enough to call up huge armies. They did not escape civil war though.

In 91 BC, Rome was accused by her allies of trying to steal public land and the quarrel descended into war. While Sulla was at war in Asia, the Senate, trying to cut Sulla’s power, commanded that Marius be given Sulla’s authority despite the Constitution’s written orders. Later, the rise of the First and Second Triumvirates, propped by the powerful armies initially granted to men like Pompeii, Crassus, Julius Caesar, and Octavian, thoroughly dismissed Senatorial orders.

The Republican system thus died under its own greed. They needed powerful armies – led by powerful generals – to push the borders of the Republic so as to bring in new wealth and lands. Now, these powerful generals not only commanded powerful armies, they supported allies back in Rome via their wealth and positions. The idea of a king, initially dismissed and rejected, was slowly coming back into the picture. The Republic had been dying over the past few centuries, and the last few decades made it all but inevitable. When Octavian defeated Mark Anthony at the naval Battle of Actium, only one man remained supreme. He would then go on to slowly bring in all power from the Senate and onto his person – never committing to the title of Emperor – and thus the Republic died.

As I said, it’s a Not-So-a Brief History of Rome… read on below on how the Roman Empire grew to be the greatest Empire that the world ever had … I made it all easy to read by grouping the Roman Emperors in their dynasties…

1. A History of Rome and her Emperors: The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC-AD 68)

NEXT: The Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)

1. A Brief History of Rome: Before the Roman Empire
2. Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–AD 68) : 1st Roman Empire Dynasty.
3. The Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)
4. The Flavian Dynasty (69–96)

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